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Creutzfeldt–jakob Disease Information

Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease or CJD (pronounced /ˈkrɔɪtsfɛlt ˈjɑːkoʊb/,[1] "KROITS-felt YA-kob") is a degenerative neurological disorder (brain disease) that is incurable and invariably fatal.[2] It is the most common among the types of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy found in humans.[3]

Contents

Classification

Types include:

Signs and symptoms

The first symptom of CJD is rapidly progressive dementia, leading to memory loss, personality changes and hallucinations. This is accompanied by physical problems such as speech impairment, jerky movements (myoclonus), balance and coordination dysfunction (ataxia), changes in gait, rigid posture, and seizures. The duration of the disease varies greatly, but sporadic (non-inherited) CJD can be fatal within months or even weeks (Johnson, 1998). In some people, the symptoms can continue for years. In most patients, these symptoms are followed by involuntary movements and the appearance of an atypical diagnostic electroencephalogram tracing.

The symptoms of CJD are caused by the progressive and irreversible death of the brain's nerve cells, which is associated with the build-up of abnormal prion proteins. When brain tissue from a CJD patient is examined under a microscope, many tiny holes can be seen where whole areas of nerve cells have died. The word "spongiform" in "transmissible spongiform encephalopathies" refers to the sponge-like appearance of the brain tissue.

Cause

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy diseases are caused by prions. The diseases are thus sometimes called prion diseases. Other prion diseases include Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome (GSS), fatal familial insomnia (FFI) and kuru in humans, as well as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, commonly known as mad cow disease) in cattle, chronic wasting disease (CWD) in elk and deer, and scrapie in sheep. Alpers' syndrome in infants is also thought to be a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy caused by a prion.[9][10]

The prion that is believed to cause Creutzfeldt–Jakob exhibits at least two stable conformations. One, the native state, is water-soluble and present in healthy cells. As of 2007[update], its biological function is presumably in transmembrane transport or signaling. The other conformational state is very poorly water-soluble and readily forms protein aggregates.

People can also acquire CJD genetically through a mutation of the gene that codes for the prion protein (PRNP). This occurs in only 5–10% of all CJD cases.

The CJD prion is dangerous because it promotes refolding of native proteins into the diseased state. The number of misfolded protein molecules will increase exponentially,[citation needed] and the process leads to a large quantity of insoluble prions in affected cells. This mass of misfolded proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death. Mutations in the gene for the prion protein can cause a misfolding of the dominantly alpha helical regions into beta pleated sheets. This change in conformation disables the ability of the protein to undergo digestion. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain and are produced in a self-sustaining feedback loop, causing exponential spread of the prion, leading to death within a few months, although a few patients have lived as long as two years.

Stanley B. Prusiner of the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) was awarded the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine in 1997 for his discovery of prions. For more than a decade, Yale University neuropathologist Laura Manuelidis has been challenging this explanation for the disease. In January 2007, she and her colleagues published an article in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science and reported that they have found a virus-like particle (but without finding nucleic acids so far) in less than 10% of the cells a scrapie-infected cell line and in a mouse cell line infected by a human CJD agent.[11]

Transmission

The defective protein can be transmitted by contaminated harvested human growth hormone (HGH) products, Immunoglobulins (IVIG), corneal grafts, dural grafts or electrode implants (acquired or iatrogenic form: iCJD); it can be inherited (hereditary or familial form: fCJD); or it may appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form: sCJD). In the hereditary form, a mutation occurs in the gene for PrP, PRNP. Ten to fifteen percent of CJD cases are inherited. (CDC)

The disease has also been shown to result from usage of HGH drawn from the pituitary glands of cadavers who died from Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease,[12] though the known incidence of this cause is (as of April 2004) quite small. The risk of infection through cadaveric HGH usage in the US only ceased when the medication was withdrawn in 1985.

It is thought that humans can contract the disease by consuming material from animals infected with the bovine form of the disease. The only suspected cases to arise thus far have been vCJD, although there are fears—based on animal studies—that consuming beef or beef products containing prion particles can also cause the development of classic CJD. When BSE material infects humans the resulting disease is known as (new) variant CJD Disease (nvCJD).[10]

Cannibalism has also been implicated as a transmission mechanism for abnormal prions, causing the disease known as kuru, found primarily among women and children of the Fore tribe in Papua New Guinea. While the men of the tribe ate the body of the deceased and rarely contracted the disease, the women and children, who ate the less desirable body parts, were 8 times more likely to contract the disease from infected tissue.

Prions, the infectious agent of CJD, may not be inactivated by means of routine surgical instrument sterilization procedures. The World Health Organization and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend that instrumentation used in such cases be immediately destroyed after use; secondary to destruction, it is recommended that heat and chemical decontamination be used in combination to process instruments that come in contact with high-infectivity tissues. No cases of iatrogenic transmission of CJD have been reported subsequent to the adoption of current sterilization procedures, or since 1976.[13][14][15] Copper–hydrogen peroxide has been suggested as an alternative to the current recommendation of sodium hydroxide or sodium hypochlorite.[16] Thermal depolymerization also destroys prions in infected organic and inorganic matter, since the process dissolves protein at the molecular level.

Blood donor restrictions

In 2004 a new report published in the Lancet medical journal showed that vCJD can be transmitted by blood transfusions.[17] The finding alarmed healthcare officials because a large epidemic of the disease might arise in the near future. There is no test to determine if a blood donor is infected while in the latent phase of vCJD. In reaction to this report, the UK government banned anyone who had received a blood transfusion since January 1980 from donating blood.[18] From 1999 there has been a ban in the UK for using UK blood to manufacture fractional products such as albumin.[19]

On May 28, 2002, the United States Food and Drug Administration instituted a policy that excludes from donation anyone who spent at least six months in certain European countries, (or three months in the United Kingdom), from 1980 to 1996. Given the large number of U.S. military personnel and their dependents residing in Europe, it was expected that over 7% of donors would be deferred due to the policy. Later changes to this policy have relaxed the restriction to a cumulative total of five years or more of civilian travel in European countries (six months or more if military). The three-month restriction on travel to the UK, however, has not been changed.[20]

The American Red Cross' policy is as follows: During the period January 1, 1980, to December 31, 1996, spending a total time of three months or more in the Channel Islands, England, the Falkland Islands, the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales precludes individuals from donating. Moreover, spending a total time of five years or more after January 1, 1980 (to present), in the above-mentioned countries and/or any country in Europe (except the former USSR), also precludes donation. People with a biologic relative who has been diagnosed with CJD or vCJD are unable to donate. Biologic relative in this setting means mother, father, sibling, grandparent, aunt, uncle or children. (For complete listing, please go to Redcross.org)

A similar policy applies to potential donors to the Australian Red Cross' Blood Service, precluding people who have spent a cumulative time of six months or more in the United Kingdom between 1980 and 1996.

The Singapore Red Cross precludes potential donors who have spent a cumulative time of three months or more in the United Kingdom between 1980 and 1996.

In New Zealand, anyone who has lived in the UK, France or the Republic of Ireland for a total of six months or more between 1980 and 1996 is prohibited from donating blood.

Similar regulations are in place in Germany, where anyone who has spent six months or more living in the UK between January 1980 and December 1996 is permanently barred from donating blood.[21]

As of 1999, Health Canada announced a policy to defer individuals from donating blood if they have lived within the United Kingdom for one month or more from January 1, 1980, to December 31, 1996. In 2000, the same policy was applied to people who have resided in France, for at least three months from January 1980 to December 1996. Canada will not accept blood from a person who has spent more than six months in a Western European country since January 1, 1980.[22]

The Association of Blood Donors of Denmark precludes potential donors who have spent a cumulative time of at least twelve months in the United Kingdom between 1 January 1980 and 31 December 1996.

The Swiss Blutspendedienst SRK precludes potential donors who have spent a cumulative time of at least six months in the United Kingdom between 1 January 1980 and 31 December 1996.

In Poland, anyone who cumulatively spent six months or longer between 1 January 1980 and 31 December 1996 in the UK, Ireland or France is permanently barred from donating.[23]

In the Czech Republic, anyone who spent more than six months in the UK or France between the years 1980 and 1996 or received transfusion in the UK after the year 1980 is not allowed to donate blood.[24]

Sperm donor restrictions

In the U.S., the FDA has banned import of any donor sperm, motivated by a risk of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, inhibiting the once popular[25] import of, for example, Scandinavian sperm. The risk, however, is not known, since artificial insemination has not been studied as a route of transmission.[26] It is also not known whether prions cross the blood-testis barrier.[26]

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of CJD is suspected when there are typical clinical symptoms and signs such as rapidly progressing dementia with myoclonus. Further investigation can then be performed to support the diagnosis including

Diffusion Weighted Imaging (DWI) images are the most sensitive. In about 24% of cases DWI shows only cortical hyperintensity; in 68%, cortical and subcortical abnormalities; and in 5%, only subcortical anomalies.[27] The involvement of the thalamus can be found in sCJD, is even stronger and constant in vCJD.[28]

Clinical testing for CJD has always been an issue. Diagnosis has mostly been based on clinical and physical examination of symptoms. In recent years, studies have shown that the tumour marker Neuron-specific enolase (NSE) is often elevated in CJD cases, however its diagnostic utility is primarily seen when combined with a test for the 14-3-3 protein.[29] As of 2010[update], screening tests to identify infected asymptomatic individuals, such as blood donors, are not yet available, though methods have been proposed and evaluated.[30]

In one third of patients with sporadic CJD, deposits of "prion protein (scrapie)," PrPSc, can be found in the skeletal muscle and/or the spleen[citation needed]. Diagnosis of vCJD can be supported by biopsy of the tonsils, which harbour significant amounts of PrPSc; however, biopsy of brain tissue is the definitive diagnostic test. Due to its invasiveness, biopsy will not be done if clinical suspicion is sufficiently high or low. A negative biopsy does not rule out CJD since it may predominate in a specific part of the brain [31]

Spongiform change in CJD

The classic histologic appearance is spongiform change in the gray matter: the presence of many round vacuoles from one to 50 micrometres in the neuropil, in all six cortical layers in the cerebral cortex or with diffuse involvement of the cerebellar molecular layer. These vacuoles appear glassy or eosinophilic and may coalesce. Neuronal loss and gliosis are also seen.[32] Plaques of amyloid-like material can be seen in the neocortex in new-variant CJD.

Unfortunately, vacuolization can be seen in other disease states. Diffuse cortical vacuolization occurs in Alzheimer's, and superficial cortical vacuolization occurs in ischemia and frontotemporal dementia. These vacuoles appear clear and punched-out. Larger vacuoles encircling neurons, vessels, and glia are a possible processing artifact.[31]

Characteristic Classic CJD Variant CJD
Median age at death 68 years 28 years
Median duration of illness 4–5 months 13–14 months
Clinical signs and symptoms Dementia; early neurologic signs Prominent psychiatric/behavioral symptoms; painful dysesthesias;

delayed neurologic signs
Periodic sharp waves on electroencephalogram Often present Often absent
Signal hyperintensity in the caudate nucleus and putamen on diffusion-weighted and FLAIR MRI Often present Often absent
"Pulvinar sign"[specify] on MRI Not reported Present in >75% of cases
Immunohistochemical analysis of brain tissue Variable accumulation. Marked accumulation of protease-resistant prion protein
Presence of agent in lymphoid tissue Not readily detected Readily detected
Increased glycoform ratio on immunoblot analysis of

protease-resistant prion protein

 Not reported Marked accumulation of protease-resistant prion protein
Presence of amyloid plaques in brain tissue May be present May be present

Treatment

As of 2011[update] no generally accepted treatment for CJD exists; the disease is invariably fatal and research continues. An experimental treatment was given to a Northern Irish teenager, Jonathan Simms, beginning in January 2003.[34] The medication, called pentosan polysulphate (PPS) and used to treat interstitial cystitis, is infused into the patient's lateral ventricle within the brain. PPS does not seem to stop the disease from progressing, and both brain function and tissue continue to be lost. However, the treatment is alleged to slow the progression of the otherwise untreatable disease, and may have contributed to the longer than expected survival of the seven patients who were studied.[35] The CJD Therapy Advisory Group to the UK Health Departments advises that data are not sufficient to support claims that pentosan polysulphate is an effective treatment and suggests that further research in animal models is appropriate.[36] A 2007 review of the treatment of 26 patients with PPS finds no proof of efficacy because of the lack of accepted objective criteria.[37]

Scientists have investigated using RNA interference to slow the progression of scrapie in mice. The RNA blocks production of the protein that the CJD process transforms into prions. This research is unlikely to lead to a human therapy for many years.[38]

Both amphotericin B and doxorubicin have been investigated as potentially effective against CJD, but as yet there is no strong evidence that either drug is effective. Further study has been taken with other medical drugs, but none are effective.

Dr. Michael Geschwind, Dr. Bruce Miller and Dr. Stanley Prusiner from University of California, San Francisco are currently running a treatment trial for sporadic CJD using quinacrine, a medicine originally created for malaria. Pilot studies showed quinacrine permanently cleared abnormal prion proteins from cell cultures, but results have not yet been published on the clinical study.

Epidemiology

Dark green areas are countries that have confirmed human cases of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and light green are countries that have bovine spongiform encephalopathy cases.

Although CJD is the most common human prion disease, it is still rare, occurring in about one out of every one million people every year. It usually affects people aged 45–75, most commonly appearing in people between the ages of 60–65. The exception to this is the more recently-recognised 'variant' CJD (vCJD), which occurs in younger people.

CDC monitors the occurrence of CJD in the United States through periodic reviews of national mortality data. According to the CDC:

New concerns

In The Lancet (June 2006), a University College London team suggested that it may take more than 50 years for vCJD to develop, from their studies of kuru, a similar disease in Papua New Guinea.[40] The reasoning behind the claim is that kuru was possibly transmitted through cannibalism in Papua New Guinea when family members would eat the body of a dead relative as a sign of mourning. In the 1950s, cannibalism was banned. In the late 20th century, however, kuru reached epidemic proportions in certain Papua New Guinean communities, therefore suggesting that vCJD may also have a similar incubation period of 30 to 50 years. A critique to this theory is that while mortuary cannibalism was banned in Papua New Guinea in the 1950s, that does not necessarily mean that the practice ended. Fifteen years later Jared Diamond was informed by Papuans that the practice continued.[41] There is dispute as to whether the Fore ever practiced cannibalism, because nobody ever observed the ritual.[citation needed] Kuru may have passed to the Fore through the preparing of the dead body for burial.

These researchers noticed a genetic variation in some kuru patients that has been known to promote long incubation periods. They have also proposed that individuals who contracted CJD in the early 1990s represent a distinct genetic subpopulation, with unusually short incubation periods for BSE. This means that there may be many more vCJD patients who have longer incubation periods, which may surface many years later.[40]

In 1997 a number of Kentuckians contracted the disease. It was discovered that all the victims had consumed squirrel brains.[42] See: http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2008/aug/03/bse.medicalresearch for recent concerns.

History

The disease was first described by German neurologist Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt in 1920 and shortly afterwards by Alfons Maria Jakob, giving it the name Creutzfeldt–Jakob. Some of the clinical findings described in their first papers do not match current criteria for Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, and it has been speculated that at least two of the patients in initial studies were suffering from a different ailment.[citation needed] An early description of familial CJD stems from the German psychiatrist and neurologist Friedrich Meggendorfer (1880 - 1953)[43][44].

Popular culture

The disease was featured in an episode of The X-Files, "Our Town", in which a group of cannibals eat the entire body (including the brain) of their fellow humans in order to stay young forever. They contract the disease from one of their victims. Going Bovine, a novel by Libba Bray, is about a teenage boy fighting Creutzfeld-Jakob disease.

The disease was also featured in an episode of Flashpoint, "Last Dance", When a woman finds out that she has the disease she teams up with her fiancee and they begin leaving a trail of criminal activity behind them. The SRU team catches up with them at a ballroom where the two plan on killing themselves after sharing one last dance. (The disease is referred to as Spontaneous rather than Sporadic

The disease was also featured in a 2006 episode of Law and Order: Criminal Intent, "Dramma Giocoso", in which an opera singer suffers from Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, causing symptoms of dementia.

The disease was indirectly featured in season 7 of the TV show 24. A harmful bio-weapon created by Jonas Hodges and his private military company Starkwood contained this virus and was set to be used against the US as part of a conspiracy concocted by another private military company owner, Alan Wilson. However, as part of their plans, the effects of the disease are shown to be programmed to act at a faster rate - the victim will apparently die within a day of contraction. Jack Bauer accidentally manages to become infected with this strain at 11:00PM, with its symptoms becoming apparent as the show progressed.

References

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External links

· · Infectious diseases – Prion diseases / Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (A81, 046)
Prion diseases in humans inherited/PRNP: fCJD · Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome · Fatal familial insomnia sporadic: sCJD acquired/transmissible: Kuru · vCJD
Prion diseases in animals Bovine spongiform encephalopathy · Scrapie · Chronic wasting disease · Transmissible mink encephalopathy
· · Mental and behavioral disorders (F · 290–319)
Neurological/symptomatic
Dementia Mild cognitive impairment · Alzheimer's disease · Multi-infarct dementia · Pick's disease · Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease · Huntington's disease · Parkinson's disease · AIDS dementia complex · Frontotemporal dementia · Sundowning, Wandering
Other Delirium · Post-concussion syndrome · Organic brain syndrome
Psychoactive substances, substance abuse, drug abuse and substance-related disorders
Intoxication/Drug overdose · Physical dependence · Substance dependence · Rebound effect · Double rebound · Withdrawal
Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional
Psychosis (Schizoaffective disorder, Schizophreniform disorder, Brief reactive psychosis) · Schizophrenia (Disorganized schizophrenia, Delusional disorder, Folie à deux)
Mood (affective)
Mania · Bipolar disorder (Bipolar I, Bipolar II, Cyclothymia, Bipolar NOS) · Depression (Major depressive disorder, Dysthymia, Seasonal affective disorder, Atypical depression, Melancholic depression)
Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform
Anxiety disorder
Phobia Agoraphobia · Social anxiety/Social phobia (Anthropophobia) · Specific phobia (Claustrophobia) · Specific social phobia
Other Panic disorder/Panic attack · Generalized anxiety disorder · OCD · stress (Acute stress reaction, PTSD)
Adjustment disorder Adjustment disorder with depressed mood
Somatoform disorder Somatization disorder · Body dysmorphic disorder · Hypochondriasis · Nosophobia · Da Costa's syndrome · Psychalgia · Conversion disorder (Ganser syndrome, Globus pharyngis) · Neurasthenia · Mass Psychogenic Illness
Dissociative disorder Dissociative identity disorder · Psychogenic amnesia · Fugue state · Depersonalization disorder
Physiological/physical behavioral
Eating disorder Anorexia nervosa · Bulimia nervosa · Rumination syndrome · NOS
Nonorganic sleep disorders (Nonorganic hypersomnia, Nonorganic insomnia) · Parasomnia (REM behavior disorder, Night terror, Nightmare)
Sexual dysfunction sexual desire (Hypoactive sexual desire disorder, Hypersexuality) · sexual arousal (Female sexual arousal disorder) · Erectile dysfunction · orgasm (Anorgasmia, Premature ejaculation) · pain (Vaginismus, Dyspareunia)
Postnatal Postpartum depression · Postnatal psychosis
Adult personality and behavior
Sexual and gender identity Sexual maturation disorder · Ego-dystonic sexual orientation · Sexual relationship disorder · Paraphilia (Voyeurism, Fetishism)
Other Personality disorder · Impulse control disorder (Kleptomania, Trichotillomania, Pyromania) · Body-focused repetitive behavior · Factitious disorder (Munchausen syndrome)
Mental disorders diagnosed in childhood
Mental retardation X-Linked mental retardation (Lujan-Fryns syndrome)
Psychological development (developmental disorder) Specific · Pervasive
Emotional and behavioral ADHD · Conduct disorder (ODD) · emotional disorder (Separation anxiety disorder) · social functioning (Selective mutism, RAD, DAD) · Tic disorder (Tourette syndrome) · Speech (Stuttering, Cluttering) · Movement disorder (Stereotypic)
Symptoms and uncategorized
Catatonia · False pregnancy · Intermittent explosive disorder · Psychomotor agitation · Sexual addiction · Stereotypy · Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures · Klüver-Bucy syndrome

: PSO/PSI

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· · Consumer food safety
Adulterants/Food contaminants

3-MCPD · Aldicarb · Cyanide · Formaldehyde · Lead poisoning · Melamine · Mercury in fish · Sudan red dye
Toxins/Poisons

Aflatoxin · Arsenic contamination of groundwater · Benzene in soft drinks · Bisphenol A · Mycotoxins · Shellfish poisoning
Microorganisms

Botulism · Campylobacter jejuni · Clostridium perfringens · Escherichia coli O157:H7 · Hepatitis A · Hepatitis E · Listeria · Norovirus · Rotavirus · Salmonella
Pesticides Overuse/Residues

Chlorpyrifos · DDT · Lindane · Malathion · Methamidophos
Preservatives

Benzoic acid · EDTA · Sodium benzoate
Sweeteners

Acesulfame potassium · Aspartame · Cyclamate · High fructose corn syrup · Saccharin · Sorbitol · Sucralose
Food scares

2005 Indonesia food scare · 2006 North American E. coli outbreak · 2007 Vietnam food scare · 2008 Canadian listeriosis outbreak · 2008 Chinese milk scandal · 2008 Irish pork crisis · 2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak · Food safety incidents in the People's Republic of China · Bradford sweets poisoning · Chilean grape scare · ICA meat repackaging controversy · Minamata disease · Toxic oil syndrome · List of foodborne illness outbreaks · List of food contamination incidents
Regulatory/Watchdog

Acceptable daily intake · E number · Early history of food regulation in the United States · European Food Safety Authority · Food and Drug Administration · Food labeling regulations · Food law · Food Safety Act 1990 · Food Standards Agency · International Food Safety Network · Pure Food and Drug Act · Quality Assurance International · List of food safety organisations
Food Processing

4-Hydroxynonenal · Acrylamide · Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease · Food irradiation · Heterocyclic amines · Hydrolyzed vegetable protein · Modified starch · Nitrosamines · Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon · Shortening · Trans fat
Misc

Curing (food preservation) · Foodborne illness · Food marketing · Food politics · Food preservation · Food quality · Food safety in the People's Republic of China · Food safety (science) · Genetically modified food

Categories: Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies | Neurodegenerative disorders | Viral infections of the central nervous system | Rare diseases

 

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