Sympathy Information

Sympathy is an extension of empathic concern, or the perception, understanding, and reaction to the distress or need of another human being.^[1] This empathic concern is driven by a switch in viewpoint, from a personal perspective to the perspective of another group or individual who is in need. Empathy and sympathy are often used interchangeably, but the two terms have distinct origins and meanings. ^[2] Empathy refers to the understanding and sharing of a specific emotional state with another person. Sympathy, however, does not require the sharing of the same emotional state. Instead, sympathy is a concern for the well-being of another. Although sympathy may begin with empathizing with the same emotion another person is feeling, sympathy can be extended to other emotional states.^[3]

Explanations: Why is sympathy experienced?

In order to experience sympathy, an individual must first attend to a person or group. ^[4] For example, a group of researchers found that distracting participants severely limited their ability to produce strong affective responses. Without distractions, people were able to attend to and respond to different emotional stimuli. Therefore attention is a cognitive facilitator for the experience of sympathy. In addition to differences in attention, the state of need of an individual or group is also considered. Varying states of need (such as perceived vulnerability or pain) require unique human reactions, often ranging from attention to sympathy. The conditions under which sympathy is selected as an appropriate response are organized more broadly into individual differences and situational differences.

Human conceptions of deservingness, interdependence, and vulnerability motivate the experience of sympathy. Research has demonstrated that a person who seems ‘deserving’ of aid is more likely to be helped. ^[5] This judgment of character also helps to maintain social order, making sure that those who are in need receive the appropriate care. ^[6] Social psychologists believe that a belief of interdependence fuels sympathetic behavior; this action is seen as self-satisfying because helping someone who is connected to you through some way (family, social capital) will often result in a personal reward (social, monetary, etc.). A large contingent of researchers has demonstrated that sympathy operates based on the principle of the powerful helping the vulnerable. ^[7]Therefore, those who are perceived as vulnerable (young, elderly, sick) become the target of sympathy. This desire to help the vulnerable stems from a paternalistic nature of humans seeking to protect and aid their children in survival.

Research has also suggested that mood state, previous experiences, social connections, novelty, salience, and spacial proximity are each determinants of sympathy. ^[8] Specifically, researchers have demonstrated that individuals experiencing positive mood states and who have experienced similar situations as other people are more likely to experience sympathy. In-group status, or a person belonging to a person’s social group, is also key to the experience of sympathy. Spacial proximity was mentioned earlier in the discussion of factors that contribute to sympathy. A person or group that is closer elicits greater sympathy. Similarly, social proximity follows the same patter. In other words, members of certain groups (ex. racial groups) favor people who are also members.^[9] This is based on the notion that people within the same group are interconnected and share successes and failures. New and emotionally-provoking situations also represent an explanation for empathic emotions, such as sympathy. People seem to habituate to events that are similar in emotional salience. For example, the first horrific event that is witnessed will elicit a greater sympathetic response compared to the subsequent experiences of the same horrific event.

Communication of Sympathy

Verbal communication is the obvious medium by which individuals are able to communicate feelings of sympathy. People can express sympathy by addressing the emotions being felt by themselves and others involved and by acknowledging the current environmental conditions for why sympathy would be the appropriate reaction. Nonverbal communication presents a fascinating study of speech intonation, facial expression, bodily motions and person-to-person physical contacts. Some other forms of nonverbal communication include spacing between people, posture and appearance. These forms of expression can convey messages related to emotion as well as opinions, physical states (fatigue), and understanding. Emotional expression is especially linked to the production of emotion-specific facial expressions. These expressions are the same from culture to culture and are often reproduced by observers, which facilitates the observers’ own understanding of the emotion and/or situation.

Nonverbal communication cues are often subconscious and difficult to control. In addition, deliberate regulation of emotion and nonverbal expression is often imperfect. Nonverbal gestures and facial expressions are also generally better understood by people observing the gestures, expressions, etc, and not by the person experiencing them first hand. ^[10] Touch has the special ability of conveying affective information upon connection. ^[11] However, this sensation must be paired with the understanding of the specific context of a given situation. Therefore, one might suggest that the touch of the hand on the shoulder during a funeral might be the fastest method of conveying sympathy. One group of researchers found that patting a person on their back, arms, or head for 5-6 seconds could effectively convey feelings of sympathy between people. ^[12] These researchers also noted that there were differences found in effectiveness of using touch to convey affect between men and women, which corresponds to the larger body of literature. Women seem to more effectively communicate emotion, specifically through touch.

These are all methods of how people can convey thoughts and emotions without the use of words. Sympathy is often expressed using this skill set used to express emotion (not necessarily the same emotion) that conveys a sense of understanding and concern for the individual or group’s well being. The combination of verbal and nonverbal communication facilitates the acknowledgment and comprehension of sympathy.

Sympathy and Human Behavior

Although sympathy is a well-known term, the implications of sympathy found in the study of human behavior are often less clear. Decision-making, an integral part of human behavior, involves the weighing costs with potential outcomes. Research on decision-making has been divided into two mechanisms, often labeled “System 1” and “System 2.” These two systems, representing the gut and the head respectively, influence decisions based on context and the individual characteristics of actors. Sympathy is an agent working in System 1, a system that uses affective cues to dictate decisions whereas System 2 is based in logic and reason. Sympathy acts in a way that provides a means of understanding another person's experience or situation, good or bad, with a focus on their individual well-being. ^[13] Research has suggested that emotion-based decision-making is often more accessible, as most of us have experienced the spectrum of human emotions, and therefore encourages individuals to help others who they perceive to be in need.

Sympathy is a major determinant of charitable behavior. Researchers have recently demonstrated that the choice to donate and the subsequent decision of how much to give elicit disparate affective emotions. While researchers found that mood management influenced the initial decision to donate because of selfish concerns (to avoid regret or feel better), they found that affective processing determined how much to donate, based on feelings of deservingness.^[14] Several researchers have sought to capitalize on human sympathy in donation behavior; these researchers have found effective ways of increasing emotional salience, such as presenting individual cases and using less information and numerical information.^[15]

In addition to its influence on decision-making, sympathy also plays a role in maintaining social order. ^[16] Social psychologists have posited that this judgment of character helps to maintain social order, making sure that those who are in need receive the appropriate care. The notion of interdependence fuels sympathetic behavior; this action is seen as self-satisfying because helping someone who is connected to you through some way (family, social capital) will often result in a personal reward (social, monetary, etc.). Regardless of selflessness or selfishness, sympathy facilitates the give and take that is necessary for maintaining a functional society.

Sympathy and Health

One practical application of sympathy research is in the health field, where sympathetic opinions and behaviors vary based on several patient characteristics and disease type. There are certain medical conditions that garner more sympathy than others.^[17] One factor that is frequently considered when determining sympathy is controllability, or the degree to which an individual could have avoided contracting the disease or medical condition. Norman, Carr and Uche (2006) found that people devoted less sympathy to individuals who had control during the event when they acquired HIV.^[18] Interestingly, they found that even less sympathy was granted to individuals who had control over the means by which they contracted HIV, such as prostitution.

Additional research regarding sympathy and health-related decision making involves disease stigma. Disease stigma can lead to discrimination in the work place and in insurance coverage. ^[19]Conversely, high levels of stigma are associated with hostility (Skelton). Several factors contribute to the development of negative disease stigmas, including the disease’s time course, severity, and the dangers that the disease might pose to others. Sexual orientation of individual patients has also been shown to affect stigma levels in the case of HIV diagnoses.^[20] Sympathy is generally associated with low levels of disease stigmatization.

Researchers have found that sympathy is related to increased levels of knowledge regarding HIV and a lower likelihood of avoiding individuals with HIV. ^[21]

Neuroscience Perspectives

Social and emotional stimuli, particularly those related to the well-being of another person, are being more directly studied with advent of technology that can track brain activity (such as Electroencephalograms and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging). Amygdala and insula activation occur when a person experiences emotions, such as fear and disgust respectively. ^[22] Primary motor regions are also activated during sympathy. This could be caused by humans' reaction to emotional faces, reflecting the expressions on their own faces, which seems to help people better understand the other person's emotion. In addition, researchers have also suggested that the neural mechanisms that are activated when personally experiencing emotions are also activated when viewing another person experiencing the same emotions (mirror neurons). ^[23] Pain seems to specifically activate a region known as the cingulate cortex, in addition to activation that is mentioned earlier. The temporal parietal junction, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral striatum are also thought to play a role in the production of emotion.

Generally, empathic emotions (including sympathy), require the activation of top-down and bottom-up activity. Top-down activity refers to cognitive processes that originate from the frontal lobe and require conscious thought whereas bottom-up activity begins from sensation of stimuli in the environment. From the sensory level, people must sense and experience the emotional cues of another. At the same time, indicative of the dual-process theory, top-down responses must be enacted to make sense of the emotional inputs streaming in and apply motive and environmental influence analyses to better understand the situation. Top-down processes often include attention to emotion and emotion regulation. ^[24]

Sympathy in Child Development

Sympathy is a stepping stone in both social and moral development. Sympathy generally arises between 2-3 years old, although some instances of empathic emotion can be seen as early as 18 months. Basic sharing of emotions, of precursor for sympathy, can be seen in infants. For examples, babies often begin to cry when they hear another baby crying near them. ^[25]This emphasizes the infant's ability to detect emotional cues from his or her environment, although not able to fully comprehend the emotion. Another milestone in child rearing is the development of ability to mimic facial expressions. Both of these processes act on the sensory and perceptual pathways, but executive functioning for empathic emotions does not begin during these early stages. Decety and Michalska (2010) believe that early affective development and later development of executive functioning creates a disparity between how children and young adults experience another person's pain. Young children be more negatively aroused compared to the older subjects.

The development of Theory of Mind, or the ability to view the world from perspectives of other people, is strongly associated with the development of sympathy and other complex emotions. ^[26] These emotions are complex because they involve more than just one's own emotional states; complex emotions involve the interplay of multiple people's varying and fluctuating thoughts and emotions within given contexts. The ability to experience vicarious emotion, or imagining how another person feels, is integral for empathic concern. Moral development is similarly tied to the understanding of outside perspectives and emotions.^[27] One group of researchers has divided moral reasoning into five categories beginning with a hedonistic self-orientation and ending with an internalized sense of needs of others, including empathic emotions. ^[28] In other words, most of us begin our lives in a state of selfishness where we care about our own survival and well-beings. We develop into beings that can understand and act to help or hinder the well-being of others.

It is important to acknowledge that the use or acceptance of sympathy can be both altruistic and self-satisfying in social situations. Several researchers posit that parenting styles (specifically level of affection) can influence the development of sympathy. ^[29] Prosocial and moral development extends into adolescence and early adulthood as humans learn to better assess and interpret the emotions of others. This is representative of an increased efficiency of and ability to engage in internal moral reasoning.

Evolutionary Origins

The evolution of sympathy is tied directly into the development of social intelligence. With the expansion of the neocortex, our primate ancestors indicated the natural selection of social intelligence. Social intelligence references a broad range of behaviors, and their associated cognitive skills, such as pair bonding, the creation of social hierarchies, and alliance formation.^[30] Researchers theorize that empathic emotions, or those relating to the emotions of others, arose due to reciprocal altruism, mother-child bonding, and the need to accurately estimate the future actions of conspecifics. In other words, empathic emotions were driven by the desire to create relationships that were mutually beneficial and to better understand the emotions of others that could avert danger or stimulate positive outcomes. ^[31] As mentioned earlier, social order is improved when people are able to provide aid to others when it is a detriment to oneself for the good of the greater society. For example, giving back to the community often leads to personal benefits.

The conditions necessary to develop empathic concerns, and later sympathy, begin with the creation of a small group of socially dependent individuals. Second, the individuals in this community must have a relatively long lifespan in order to encounter several opportunities to react with sympathy. Parental care relationships, alliances during conflicts, and the creation of social hierarchies are also associated with the onset of sympathy in human interactions. One group of researchers analyzed the moments in which sympathetic behavior originally came about, including dangerous situations, such as predator sightings, and providing aid for the sick and/or wounded. (Trivers)^[32] The evolution of sympathy as a social catalyst can be seen in both primate species and in human development.

Neuroscience Perspectives

Social and emotional stimuli, particularly those related to the well-being of another person, are being more directly studied with advent of technology that can track brain activity (such as Electroencephalograms and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging). Amygdala and insula activation occur when a person experiences emotions, such as fear and disgust respectively. ^[33] Primary motor regions are also activated during sympathy. This could be caused by humans' reaction to emotional faces, reflecting the expressions on their own faces, which seems to help people better understand the other person's emotion. In addition, researchers have also suggested that the neural mechanisms that are activated when personally experiencing emotions are also activated when viewing another person experiencing the same emotions (mirror neurons). ^[34] Pain seems to specifically activate a region known as the cingulate cortex, in addition to activation that is mentioned earlier. The temporal parietal junction, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral striatum are also thought to play a role in the production of emotion.

Generally, empathic emotions (including sympathy), require the activation of top-down and bottom-up activity. Top-down activity refers to cognitive processes that originate from the frontal lobe and require conscious thought whereas bottom-up activity begins from sensation of stimuli in the environment. From the sensory level, people must sense and experience the emotional cues of another. At the same time, indicative of the dual-process theory, top-down responses must be enacted to make sense of the emotional inputs streaming in and apply motive and environmental influence analyses to better understand the situation. Top-down processes often include attention to emotion and emotion regulation. ^[35]

References

1. ^ Decety, J; Michalska, KJ (2010). "Neurodevelopmental changes in the circuits underlying empathy and sympathy from childhood to adulthood". Developmental Science 13 (6): 886–899. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00940.
2. ^ Lishner, D. A.; Batson, C. D., Huss, E. (NaN undefined NaN). "Tenderness and Sympathy: Distinct Empathic Emotions Elicited by Different Forms of Need". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37 (5): 614–625. doi:10.1177/0146167211403157.
3. ^ Decety, J; Michalska, KJ (2010). "Neurodevelopmental changes in the circuits underlying empathy and sympathy from childhood to adulthood". Developmental Science 13 (6): 886–899. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00940.
4. ^ Dickert, S; Slovic, P (2009). "Attentional mechanisms in the generation of sympathy". Judgment and Decision Making 4 (4): 297–306.
5. ^ Lowenstein, G.; Small, D. A. (2007). "The scarecrow and the tin man: The vicissitudes of human sympathy and caring". Review of General Psychology 11 (2): 112–126. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.11.2.112..
6. ^ Irwin, K.; Mcgrimmon, T., Simpson, B. (1 December 2008). "Sympathy and Social Order". Social Psychology Quarterly 71 (4): 379–397. doi:10.1177/019027250807100406.
7. ^ Djiker, A. J. M. (2010). "Perceived vulnerability as a common basis of moral emotions". British Journal of Social Psychology 49: 415-423.
8. ^ Lowenstein, G.; Small, D. A. (2007). "The scarecrow and the tin man: The vicissitudes of human sympathy and caring". Review of General Psychology 11 (2): 112–126. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.11.2.112..
9. ^ Lowenstein, G.; Small, D. A. (2007). "The scarecrow and the tin man: The vicissitudes of human sympathy and caring". Review of General Psychology 11 (2): 112–126. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.11.2.112..
10. ^ DePaulo, B. M. (1992). "Nonverbal behavior and self-presentation". Psychological Bulletin 111 (2): 203–243.
11. ^ Wang, R.; Quek, F. (2010). "Touch & talk: Contextualizing remote touch for affective interaction". Proceedings of the fourth international conference on Tangible, embedded, and embodied interaction: 13–20.
12. ^ Hertenstein, Matthew J.; Holmes, Rachel, McCullough, Margaret, Keltner, Dacher (NaN undefined NaN). "The communication of emotion via touch.". Emotion 9 (4): 566–573. doi:10.1037/a0016108.
13. ^ Clark, Arthur J. (2010). "Empathy and Sympathy: Therapeutic Distinctions in Counseling". Journal of Mental Health Counseling 32 (2): 95–101.
14. ^ Dickert, Stephan; Sagara, Namika, Slovic, Paul (1 October 2011). "Affective motivations to help others: A two-stage model of donation decisions". Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 24 (4): 361–376. doi:10.1002/bdm.697.
15. ^ Small, Deborah A.; Loewenstein, George, Slovic, Paul (NaN undefined NaN). "Sympathy and callousness: The impact of deliberative thought on donations to identifiable and statistical victims". Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 102 (2): 143–153. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.01.005.
16. ^ Irwin, K.; Mcgrimmon, T., Simpson, B. (1 December 2008). "Sympathy and Social Order". Social Psychology Quarterly 71 (4): 379–397. doi:10.1177/019027250807100406.
17. ^ Etchegary, Holly (7 August 2007). "Stigma and Genetic Risk: Perceptions of Stigma among Those at Risk for Huntington Disease (HD)∗". Qualitative Research in Psychology 4 (1-2): 65–84. doi:10.1080/14780880701473417.
18. ^ Norman, L. R.; Carr, R., Uche, C. (1 November 2006). "The role of sympathy on avoidance intention toward persons living with HIV/AIDS in Jamaica". AIDS Care 18 (8): 1032–1039. doi:10.1080/09540120600578409.
19. ^ Etchegary, Holly (7 August 2007). "Stigma and Genetic Risk: Perceptions of Stigma among Those at Risk for Huntington Disease (HD)∗". Qualitative Research in Psychology 4 (1-2): 65–84. doi:10.1080/14780880701473417.
20. ^ Skelton, J. A. (2006). "How Negative Are Attitudes Toward Persons With SAKIDESL–TLOENUKEMIA PARADIGM AIDS? Examining the AIDS–Leukemia Paradigm". Basic and Applied Social Psychology 28 (3): 251-261.
21. ^ Norman, L. R.; Carr, R., Uche, C. (1 November 2006). "The role of sympathy on avoidance intention toward persons living with HIV/AIDS in Jamaica". AIDS Care 18 (8): 1032–1039. doi:10.1080/09540120600578409.
22. ^ Decety, Jean; Michalska, Kalina J. (1 November 2010). "Neurodevelopmental changes in the circuits underlying empathy and sympathy from childhood to adulthood". Developmental Science 13 (6): 886–899. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00940.x.
23. ^ Singer, Tania; Lamm, Claus (1 March 2009). "The Social Neuroscience of Empathy". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1156 (1): 81–96. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04418.x.
24. ^ Singer, Tania; Lamm, Claus (1 March 2009). "The Social Neuroscience of Empathy". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1156 (1): 81–96. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04418.x.
25. ^ Decety, J; Michalska, KJ (2010). "Neurodevelopmental changes in the circuits underlying empathy and sympathy from childhood to adulthood". Developmental Science 13 (6): 886–899. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00940.
26. ^ Decety, J; Michalska, KJ (2010). "Neurodevelopmental changes in the circuits underlying empathy and sympathy from childhood to adulthood". Developmental Science 13 (6): 886–899. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00940.
27. ^ Weele, Cor (NaN undefined NaN). "Empathy’s purity, sympathy’s complexities; De Waal, Darwin and Adam Smith". Biology & Philosophy 26 (4): 583–593. doi:10.1007/s10539-011-9248-4.
28. ^ Eisenberg, Nancy; Carlo, Gustavo, Murphy, Bridget, Court, Patricia (1 August 1995). "Prosocial Development in Late Adolescence: A Longitudinal Study". Child Development 66 (4): 1179–1197. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00930.x.
29. ^ Wispé, Lauren (1 January 1986). "The distinction between sympathy and empathy: To call forth a concept, a word is needed.". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (2): 314–321. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.50.2.314.
30. ^ Dautenhahn, Kerstin (1 July 1997). "I Could Be You: The Phenomenological Dimension Of Social Understanding". Cybernetics and Systems 28 (5): 417–453. doi:10.1080/019697297126074.
31. ^ de Vignemont, Frederique; Singer, Tania (1 October 2006). "The empathic brain: how, when and why?". Trends in Cognitive Sciences 10 (10): 435–441. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.08.008.
32. ^ Trivers, Robert L. (1971). "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism". The Quarterly Review of Biology 46 (1): 35–57.
33. ^ Decety, Jean; Michalska, Kalina J. (1 November 2010). "Neurodevelopmental changes in the circuits underlying empathy and sympathy from childhood to adulthood". Developmental Science 13 (6): 886–899. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00940.x.
34. ^ Singer, Tania; Lamm, Claus (1 March 2009). "The Social Neuroscience of Empathy". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1156 (1): 81–96. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04418.x.
35. ^ Singer, Tania; Lamm, Claus (1 March 2009). "The Social Neuroscience of Empathy". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1156 (1): 81–96. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04418.x.

Further reading

• Decety, J. and Ickes, W. (Eds.) (2009). The Social Neuroscience of Empathy. Cambridge: MIT Press, Cambridge.
• Decety, J. and Batson, C.D. (Eds.) (2007). Interpersonal Sensitivity: Entering Others' Worlds. Hove: Psychology Press.
• Eisenberg, N., & Strayer, J. (1987). Empathy and its Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Lamm, C., Batson, C.D., & Decety, J. (2007). The neural substrate of human empathy: effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 42-58.

External links

• Mirrored emotion by Jean Decety from the University of Chicago.

• Sympathy Message Samples Examples of sympathy messages to say and write for every situation.

• Sympathy messages Provides information on writing sympathy messages with examples.

• Sympathy Message Examples Examples of sympathy messages to say or write.

Categories:

• Emotions
• Greek loanwords
• Social psychology
• Giving
• Virtue

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See Also:

• Health: Conditions and Diseases: Neurological Disorders: Muscle Diseases: Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy